The rise of modern trade unionism in America Essay

The rise of modern trade unionism in America - Essay Example A labor union or a trade union refers to a body that represents workers. Through the leadership of the union, negotiations and bargains take place with the employer on behalf of the employees who in this case are the members of the union. The negotiations are mainly on rules that govern the employee, working conditions; bargain on wages and workplace policy on employee safety among others.In the history of America, the gilded age is a term used to refer to the exceptional polarization of wealth and wastage of the same by the upper class of people in the US after the civil war. This is precisely the period between the 1870s and the 1890s.This polarization of wealth resulted from the expansion of both the population and industries in the United States, (Arthur M. 2000).During this period, there was an extremely rapid growth in small factories mines, stores and other corporations. There was also diversity in race due to the increased immigration rates. The growth in businesses inflated immigration due to the availability of employment opportunities. The wealthy entrepreneurs established corporations, enterprises and major businesses.The gilded age was largely characterized by massive industrial growth. The productivity of American manufacturing was way beyond that of France, Germany, And the Great Britain. The mileage of Railroad grew three times more for the period between 1860 and 1880.The setting up of new areas for the purposes of business farming contributed to the creation of a marketplace that was national. It also inspired a boom in the mining of coal and production of steel. The large desire for capital made it possible for the consolidation of America's financial markets. By the year 1900, economic focus had spread to most of the other ranches of industrialization. Large corporates were dominant in the agriculture and industrial sectors of the economy. The steel industry was also up and coming. There was an increase in the mechanization of the industries and this largely marked the Gilded Age as a cheaper alternative to creating more products. At this time it was recommended that efficiency was sought through the use of machinery rather than workers in order to contribute to fewer motions in a shorter duration of time. The redesign lead to acceleration in the speed of the machinery in the various factories while at the same time increasing the output of the factories and reducing the factory requirements for labor that was skilled, (Fine, Sidney, 1996). The mechanization rendered the unskilled laborers not busy. They were commonly involved in the repetitive and simple tasks with the guidance of an engineer and a foreman who was skilled. The rates of wages increased by the day and so did the numbers of both the skilled and unskilled laborers. Colleges for engineering related courses were added I numbers to meet the demand of expertise and skilled labor force. This turn of events and the massive industrialization contributed to the setting up of a diverse working class that created the wealth that was amassed by the up coming financiers and industrialists. These wealthy industrialists more often than not influenced the business process or even carried out unethical financial manipulations. Due to their unbecoming behavior in financial manipulation, these wealthy industrialists were popularly known as the robber barons, (Smythe, Ted C.; 2003). During this time, there was a minor labor movement that was established by the name of American Federation of labor, (FLA).This movement was however politically involved and featured close associates of the democrats and republicans. Almost all the eligible people into this movement were

Specific Injury Treatment Ankle Sprain Health And Social Care Essay

Specific Injury Treatment Ankle Sprain Health And Social Care Essay An injury can be defined as a physical damage or harm on an animal or human being. It affects the structure or function of the body and is caused by force either chemically or physically. Injuries are classified according to their cause like traumatic injury, infection, toxin, metabolic; the location like wound, nerve injury, cell damage, brain injury; and the activity like sports injury, occupational injury. They cause deaths and many of those who survive them incur temporary or permanent disabilities. They can be prevented and if they happen, their consequences can be mitigated (Alan Melvin, 2002). Under the class of location, it can be found on an ankle with an example of sprained ankle. Ankle, being a complex supporting structure, if injured, it causes disability and absence from work. The ligaments in tibio-fibular joint in the foot enable to stabilize the forward motion. Basically, if they are damaged, their treatment will depend on how severe the injury is. This means that ankles are very useful in human body and there are many forms of treatment incase of damage but prevention is always the best. Their complications can cause arthritis, loose body formation and instability. In severe cases, that have to undergo surgery, 85% are successful and showed excellent results (Alan Melvin, 2002). Ankle sprain is very common in sports and normal activities like work. It is the damage of the soft tissues around the ankle especially ligaments which can be torn or partially torn. It is also known as rolled ankle, ankle sprain or ankle ligament injury. It happens when there are abnormal motions like sporting activities, stepping on uneven surfaces, from a jump, falling, running, etc. It can include effects such as pain, swelling, and inability to walk. It can be prevented by wearing good shoes, focusing on the way we walk and run and paying attention to both internal and external warnings (Icon Health Publications 2002). Ankle sprain can be classified in three grades depending on the force involved in causing it. In grade 1, it is a slight stretching which causes damage to the fibers and there is minimal swelling, joint stiffness, and mild pain which can be treated through isometric exercises and weight bearing. In grade 2, there is moderate tenderness, minor bruises, difficulty walking and possible instability which can be treated through therapy (physical). In grade 3, there is instability, ligament rapture, severe swelling and pain and can be treated through long physical therapy, surgery, reconstruction (Alan Melvin, 2002). It consists of inversion which occurs when there is too much inversion of the foot. It is rated to be 90% of all the sprains that happen and the most involved ligament is the anterior talofibular. Pain is more concentrated on the outside than inside of the ankle joint. The second type of sprain is eversion where the foot is twisted outwards hence the deltoid ligament is stretched too far. It causes pain inside the ankle. High ankle sprains an injury of ligaments like tibia and fibula. It occurs due to forced and sudden twisting of the foot (Icon Health Publications 2002). Ankle sprains are associated with sports like soccer, football, volleyball and sprint racing. They both do vigorous exercises involving the ankles and sometimes jumping like in volleyball and basketball. In soccer, there is a chance that at least a player must suffer an injury especially, ankle sprain. According to FIFA ratings (2005-2010), the risk rate is 10% in soccer for an ankle sprain. The rate is not verifiable due to victims in different games; sometimes, 3 players suffer in a game while in other games none suffers. Actually, determining the risk rate at which people suffer may be difficult due to intervals, the severity and there causes. Many players have undergone surgery and others have had to take rest due to the sprains. The conservative measure is most used as players get injured, treated in the field and either get substituted or resume their positions (Alan Melvin, 2002). Some of symptoms of this injury are pain caused by sensitivity of the nerves and severe tenderness. There is warmth caused by increased blood flow and little ability or difficulty in moving the injured leg. Severe bruising and swelling can also be experienced and can be diagnosed through physical exam and x-ray. Physical exam shows laxity of the joint while x-ray shows instability. It can be confused for an ankle fracture which is caused by the same mechanisms. Mostly, in children, growth plates are mistaken for sprains. Over time, ligaments that get damaged as a result of injury heal. This can only be possible to the minor injuries hence whenever there are cases of serious injuries; you should consult the doctor for diagnosis. He/she is to tell on the mode of treatment depending on the examination. Use of physical examination may be painful due to different twists in order to know the state of the ankle. A magnetic resonance imaging can be done to determine the severity of ligament injury, bone chip, fracture, joint surface injury or any other problem. It gives a correct diagnosis and can be done immediately at the point of injury or after swelling and bruising resolves (Icon Health Publications 2002). The recovery is through treatment which aims at minimizing swelling, pain and inflammation while enabling recovery. Use of nonsurgical methods or conservative measures is advisable. If the injury was a grade 1, use of PRICE (takes between 48- 72 hours) is applicable which means Protect, Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation. Protection is from any more danger or further injury. Rest means not involving the injured ankle in strenuous activities hence one can use crutches incase of making any movement. The recommended rest is between 48-72 hours. Ice, although it can damage the skin if applied for long, helps in decreasing the blood flow to the damaged ligament. It is applied immediately or soonest possible after an injury for 20-30 minutes. It should be wrapped in a plastic bag, before pressing it on the skin else it will cause ice-burn and should not be left on while asleep. The time should not be less than 10 minutes because it will have no effect and not more than 30 minutes because it will damage the skin. Compression is with a bandage to limit swelling and should not be too tight to stop flow of blood. It should not be left on during sleep and should be removed as advised to allow free movement of the joint. Elevation is placing the injured leg at a strategic position, e.g. on cushions while lying on a sofa or on pillow while sleeping on bed to limit and reduce swelling and help recovery (Alan Melvin, 2002). It is also advisable to avoid HARM (takes 72 hours), meaning Heat, Alcohol, Running and Massage. Heat speeds blood flow hence should be avoided as long as there is inflammation after which, it can be used for soothing. Alcohol decreases healing and cause increased bleeding. Running can cause more harm to the injury while massage may increase bleeding. Gentle massage after 72 hours is recommended while running is only advisable after full recovery to strengthen the joint (Icon Health Publications 2002). Doctors also advise on constant gentle movement of the joint by doing exercises every day which help it to regain its normal functions and prevent stiffness. Secondly, physiotherapy helps to improve proprioception which is the ability if the brain in connection to movement and position. In our normal activities, the ankle should be supported with a rigid sort with to help in healing of the damaged ankle. Finally, doctors warn against getting involved in vigorous exercises but encourage on allowing movement of ankle to a certain degree. It gives support to the joint (Icon Health Publications 2002). All of the above can be done even without the help of a doctor but it is always advisable to see one incase the pain is so severe that it restricts movement, a ligament ruptured or on suspicion of a bone breakage. Also, if swelling and symptoms do not settle because in most cases, they take short time to ease and if there were severe bruises suffered. With assess of the doctor and use of x-ray, he /she can recommend the nonsurgical methods of treatment or surgical (Hammer, 2007). Mostly, medicine may not be needed if pain can be tolerated but sometimes, nonsteroidal anti- inflammatory drugs may be used to control inflammation and pain. Some of the pain killers include: Paracetamol and codeine, anti- inflammatory painkillers. Paracetamol is used to relieve pain but incase it does not help, codeine is used which is stronger and can cause drowsiness and constipation. Anti-inflammatory include aspirin and ibuprofen which relieve pain and limit inflammation. Others are rub on which are similar to the tablets. Anti-inflammatory are not very advisable because they have severe side effects especially to people with high blood pressure, kidney failure, heart attack and asthma. We need to consult our doctors or pharmacists before taking these medicines (Alan Melvin, 2002). There are arguments that some inflammation necessitates healing. This is the reason why many doctors do not recommend use of anti-inflammatory painkillers within the first 48 hours of injury, they delay healing. It may only be theoretical because no one has proven this point. Only arguments and contradictions arise hence research is needed to prove it. Rehabilitation helps to decrease swelling and pain and ensure that joint problems do not lead to chronic pain. To help pain and swelling, you can use ultrasound and electrical stimulation. It starts with simple exercises then extremity when and other exercises are added when you are pain free. It aims at improved balance thus proprioception training is important and increase in strength and range of motion. The recovery depends on three phases: Phase 1- resting reducing swelling. Phase2 à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ restoring strength, flexibility and range of motion. Phase 3- doing the less simple activities followed by vigorous and sudden activities. In time course, 1-4 weeks is based on stabilized walking, 4-8 weeks, immobilization of ankles, 8-12 weeks, embrace of high level activities and 12 weeks onward, performance without external mobilization (Lewin, 2008). Wearing of good costume for the purpose like boots during across country hike or when walking on uneven grounds or when rambling mountains would prevent or reduce ankle sprains. This is because they give support to the ankle as compared to other shoes. By visiting a physiotherapist, he/she can advise on the exercises to do so as to build muscles in order to prevent sprains. If it involved surgery, it should be resistant to nonsurgical. Surgical options include arthroscopy where the surgeon tries to figure whether there is any loose cartilage, ligament caught in the joint. The second option is reconstruction where the surgeon by use of stitches and other ligaments to repair the torn ones (Alan Melvin, 2002). Care should be taken on the way we treat or attend to an ankle sprain. This is because even a minor injury can turn chronic if not well dealt with. Most of the treatments of this injury are just conservative than medicinal. We should always seek doctorà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s diagnosis before taking painkillers. We can suffer injuries anytime any place thus we should always try and prevent it if possible and if it happens, we seek for the right recovery and rehabilitation.

Santa Fe Trail Essay -- essays research papers

Santa Fe Trail Net "ALL'S SET" FOR SFTNet "The Santa Fe Trail Lives On!" Welcome to SFTNet, the latest manifestation of the Santa Fe Trail saga. This service is designed for trail buffs, students, researchers, travelers on the trail--in short, anyone with an interest in historic or contemporary developments along the Santa Fe Trail. What Is The Santa Fe Trail? As many who read this introduction will know, the Santa Fe Trail is an ancient land route of communication between the desert Southwest of what is now the United States and the prairies and plains of central North America. In the Southwest it was also part of a longer route that ran down the Rio Grande into what is now northern Mexico. American Indian peoples used the route to trade the agricultural produce of the Rio Grande Valley and the bounty of the plains, such as jerked buffalo meat and buffalo hides. When the Spanish conquistador Onate came to New Mexico in 1598, he and his soldiers followed this ancient route as they explored the plains and traded wit h the peoples there. During the next two centuries the Spanish gained an intimate knowledge of the plains and the routes between the Mississippi-Missouri river systems and the Southwest. Then, in 1821, a trader from Missouri, William Becknell, came to Santa Fe along what was to become known as the historical route of the Santa Fe Trail. He opened the Santa Fe Trail as a commercial route between what was then ...

Case 12-05

MEMO: LabCo must determine if their accounting policy for the revenue treatment of its construction contracts is reasonable, if it is appropriate for LabCo to change its method of accounting for the Halibut contract from the percentage-of-completion method to the completed-contract method and how the change should be treated on the basis of the guidance provided within ASC 250, and how LabCo’s accounting policy and accounting for the Halibut contract may change under IFRS if adopted in the coming year.This memorandum will provide support for how the overall conclusion, based on the issues above, was reached. Facts Accounting Policy for Revenue Treatment LabCo is a large construction contracting firm, and negotiates all of its contracts with its customers on either a fixed-price or cost-plus basis. LabCo has developed an accounting policy for revenue recognition related to its customized construction contracts, as follows: â€Å"The Company performs under a variety of contract s, some of which provide for reimbursement of cost plus fees, and others that are fixed-price-type contracts.Revenues and fees on these contracts are primarily recognized on a contract-by-contract basis using the percentage-of-completion method of accounting, which is most often based on contract costs incurred to date compared with total estimated costs at completion (cost-to-cost method). † â€Å"The completed-contract method of accounting is used in instances in which reliably dependable estimates of the total costs to be incurred under a specific contract cannot be made. † Change in Method of Accounting for Revenue TreatmentLabCo has entered into a contract with Halibut to build a six-axis laser cutting machine. The contract entered into was for a fixed-price and requires detailed and involved performance specifications. Even though this was a unique arrangement that required a great deal of customer specification, LabCo believed that with its extensive experience p erforming under similar contracts, including previous contract with Halibut, the percentage-of-completion method of accounting for this contract was appropriate.After LabCo began experiencing significant difficulties in the design and manufacture of the six-axis laser cutting machine, (including design revisions, certain engineering costs needing to be outsourced, and the cost of steel used in the production of the frame of the machine rising unexpectedly) they determined that their estimate of the overall cost to complete the contract needed to be revised. LabCo expected that the overall project would incur total costs that would be in excess of the total fixed-fee contract price negotiated with Halibut.As a result, management updated its estimates used in percentage-of-completion accounting to reflect both the cost overruns incurred as well as the cost overruns expected to be incurred, and also recorded a provision for the entire loss on the contract in the period in which it beca me aware that the contract costs would exceed the total contract value. After six-months, LabCo delivered the six-axis laser cutting machine to Halibut. Yet, when final test were ran using the six-axis, the machine failed to perform up to Halibut’s specifications as defined in the contract.LabCo then had to redesign, fix, and remedy the various issues with the machine. Upon notification of these continued problems, LabCo’s CAO determined that total estimates of the contract costs to be incurred for the Halibut contract were no longer able to be reliably determined. Therefore, the use of the percentage-of-completion method of accounting was deemed no longer an appropriate method of revenue recognition for this particular contract.As a result, the determination was made that LabCo would switch to a completed-contract method of revenue recognition for the duration of its contract with Halibut. Analysis Percentage-of-Completion Method Based upon review of ASC 605-35-25-56, the use of the percentage-of-completion method depends on the ability to make reasonably dependable estimates, which, for purposes of this Subtopic, relates to estimates of the extent of progress toward completion, contract revenues, and contract costs.Furthermore, according to ASC 605-35-25-57, the percentage-of-completion method is considered preferable as an accounting policy in circumstances in which reasonably dependable estimates can be made and in which all the following conditions exist: a. Contracts executed by the parties normally include provisions that clearly specify the enforceable rights regarding goods or services to be provided and received by the parties, the consideration to be exchanged, and the manner and terms of settlement. . The buyer can be expected to satisfy all obligations under the contract. c. The contractor can be expected to perform all contractual obligations. ASC 605-35-25-61 states, an entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts for which reasonably dependable estimates cannot be made or for which inherent hazards make estimates doubtful. Completed-Contract MethodBased on review of ASC 605-35-25-90, when lack of dependable estimates or inherent hazards cause forecasts to be doubtful, the completed-contract method is preferable. Inherent hazards relate to contract conditions or external factors that raise questions about contract estimates and about the ability of either the contractor or the customer to perform all obligations under the contract. Inherent hazards that may cause contract estimates to be doubtful usually differ from inherent business risks.Business entities engaged in contracting, like all business entities, are exposed to numerous business risks that vary from contract to contract. The reliability of the estimating process in contract accounting does not depend on the absence of such risks . Assessing business risks is a function of users of financial statements. According to ASC 630-35-25-97, Circumstances to be considered in determining when a project is substantially completed include, for example, delivery of the product, acceptance by the customer, departure from the site, and compliance with performance specifications.Changes to and from Percentage-of-Completion and Completed-Contract Methods Based on review of ASC 605-35-25-94, the completed-contract method is preferable in circumstances in which estimates cannot meet the criteria for reasonable dependability discussed in paragraph 605-35-25-57 or in which there are inherent hazards of the nature of those discussed in paragraphs 605-35-25-65 through 25-66.An entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall depart from that policy and use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts only in the circumstances described in paragraph 605-35-25-61. In addition, 605-35-25-95 states, an entity using the completed-contract method as its basic accounting policy shall depart from that policy for a single contract or a group of contracts not having the features described in paragraphs 605-35-25-92 through 25-93 and use the percentage-of-completion method on one of the bases described in paragraphs 605-35-25-60 through 25-61.Accounting Changes and Error Corrections According to ASC 980-250-55-3, if a regulated entity changes accounting methods and the change does not affect costs that are allowable for rate-making purposes, the regulated entity would apply the change in the same manner as would an unregulated entity. If a regulated entity changes accounting methods and the change affects allowable costs for rate-making purposes, the change generally would be implemented in the way that it is implemented for regulatory purposes.A change in the method of accounting for research and development costs, either from a policy of capitalizat ion and amortization to one of charging those costs to expense as incurred or vice versa, is an example of that type of change. Adopting IFRS Based on review of IAS 18 – Revenue, the recognition of revenue by reference to the stage of completion of a transaction is often referred to as the percentage-of-completion method.Under this method, revenue is recognized in the accounting periods in which the services are rendered. The recognition of revenue on this basis provides useful information on the extent of service activity and performance during a period. When the outcome of the transaction involving the rendering of services cannot be estimated reliably, revenue shall be recognized only to the extent of the expenses recognized that are recoverable. Conclusion Accounting Policy for Revenue TreatmentBased on the facts presented and the analysis performed, LabCo’s accounting policy for the revenue treatment of its construction contracts appears reasonable. On the other h and, while it makes sense to use the percentage-of-completion method for contracts that can be reasonably estimated, the completed-contract method of accounting appears to be the â€Å"preferred† method, due to the specific criteria that must be met in order to qualify for such reasonableness under the percentage-of-completion method of accounting. Change in Method of Accounting for Revenue TreatmentBased on the facts provided and the analysis performed, it is appropriate for LabCo to change is method of accounting for the Halibut contract from the percentage-of-completion method to the completed contract method. According to the guidance (stated above), â€Å"An entity using the percentage-of-completion method as its basic accounting policy shall depart from that policy and use the completed-contract method for a single contract or a group of contracts only in the circumstances described in paragraph 605-35-25-61. The Halibut contract adheres to this policy, and because the re were unexpected issues that caused for the contract to no longer be reasonably estimated, they are correct in their reasoning for changing to the completed-contract method. On the basis of the guidance provided within ASC 250, Accounting Changes and Error Corrections (provided above), this change should be treated in one of two ways: (1) If a regulated entity’s change in accounting methods does not affect rate-making costs, the change would be applied in the same manner as an unregulated entity. 2) If a regulated entity’s change in accounting methods does affect rate-making costs, the change would be implemented based on regulatory purposes. Adopting IFRS If LabCo decides to adopt IFRS in the upcoming year, there will be a slight change in the Company’s accounting policy, as well as their accounting for the Halibut contract. The use of the percentage-of-completion method when contracts can be reasonably estimated will remain consistent with IFRS.However, when ever these costs cannot be reasonably estimated, instead of using the completed-contract method, IFRS states that revenue shall be recognized â€Å"only to the extent of the expenses recognized that are recoverable. † Therefore, the accounting for the Halibut contract will change under IFRS in the same way. In this instance, rather than switching from percentage-of-completion to the completed-contract method, LabCo’s contract change would consist of altering the percentage-of-completion method in order to adapt to the recognition of revenue as stated by IFRS in the paragraph above.

New World Order: Impacts in Terms on Global Cooperation

As the Cold War between US and USSR reached to an end, the world witnessed a shift from bilateral to unilateral nature of power. In 1991, President Bush inoculated the concept of New World Order which aimed to increase the international collaboration, collective security, globalization, interdependence, authority and achievement of common goals. All the impacts of New World Order directly or indirectly left their marks on the nature of cooperation among nations. This paper, after succinctly introducing the concept of New World Order in general, aims to discuss the Bush Administration’s version of New World Order.The paper discusses the impacts of New World Order’s implementation in terms of cooperation among the states and later discusses its negative corollaries. After providing a critique of the established viewpoints about the impacts of New World Order, the paper ends by drawing a conclusion in favour of the concerned system as the only viable solution if internatio nal peace and security is to be achieved. Introduction Although New World Order is not a novel concept, it is often misinterpreted as one. It is largely because of various transformational phases the system has gone through ever since its inoculation.However, differences among its versions have existed. These differences are more evident due to the changing circumstances in which these versions were established. As the New World Order aimed to provide amelioration in the prevailing system, its guiding principles have varied from time to time. Giddens believes that the direct corollaries of these changes appear in the shape of forces like globalization, individualism and political agency etc (Pillay & Elliot, 2001, p. 8&9). Before analyzing the implications of New World Order in terms of cooperation across the world, it is mandatory to create a sufficient understanding of the concept.New World Order is an abstract concept that attempts to create a better world. Therefore its contents may vary from time to time based on the situation and the nature of paradigm shift required. New World Order and the United States: In the history of the United States, the term ‘New World Order’ was first introduced by Woodrow Wilson after the World War I. Marked by idealism, the concept did no prevail long. After the World War II, Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to establish the concept by making possible increasing role of international bodies like United Nations for the attainment of peace which never reached pragmatism.Both these versions of New World Order remained transient up until 1991 when President George H. W. Bush introduced the term at the time of Gulf War which marked the characteristics of post cold war era. Bush’s idea behind new world order included the abandonment of aggression against nations, collective security to guard against the aggression and increases collaboration of nations to meet such peace creating goals (Miller and Yetiv 56). Bef ore 1991, the New World Order only existed as an abstract concept.President Bush perpetuated it in the international politics (Yovanovish 3) which was practically implemented in case of the Iraq’s war with Kuwait. Concept of New World Order in the Light of Bush Administration What Bush Administration implied by New World Order was fairly divergent from the preceding concepts addresses by the other US presidents. In a nut shell, the major components of President Bush’s New World Order can be reckoned in the following except from his speech, â€Å"a new era-freer from the threat of terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and more secure in the quest for peace. An era in which thenations of the world, East and West, North and South, can prosper and live in harmony †¦ a world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle †¦ where the strong respect the rights of the weak† (Miller and Yetiv 56). The concerned statement passed in 1991 provide an unequivocal agenda of New World Order that included peace creation, global prosperity and a rule of law to control the world. The other aspects introduced by President George H. W. Bush included interdepence, collective security, collective action, international authorities and globalization etc. Positive Impacts of New World Order in Terms of International CooperationThe New World Order has played dual role in bringing the phase of transformation. On a positive side, establishment of this order and the end of cold war removed the threat of nuclear havoc. Similarly, the state governments shifted to a mutual problem solving approach as a result of increasing dependency arriving from globalization. Such corollaries are evident in events like General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and North American Free Trade Agreement etc (Hauss 2&3). Interdependence The end of cold war and the collapse of Soviet Union led to a unipolar environment in the world politics.As the balance of power distu rbed , the New World Order inoculated a system of interdependence providing equal opportunities for all the states by advocating the dependence of nations on one another. Related to interdependence is the preference of common interests to state interests that was addressed by the new system (Kessler 53). Therefore, the New World Order suppressed national sovereignty in favour of international authority. Cooperation To increase interdependence and through the work of international bodies, the concept of Free Trade emerged as a product of New World Order.With the lifting of trade barriers as a result of Free Trade policy, increasing flow of technology across borders, individuals from different countries are crossing their borders to enter into the other countries to hunt for opportunities and are constantly being exposed to the foreign cultures and issues. This trend has started diminishing the borders between nations thereby threatening the concept of statehood. As a result ‘gr eater economic and social interdependence seem to affect national decision-making’ thereby making the concept of state obsolete (Bertucci & Alberti, p.9). However, the whole process served to achieve an important goal of New World Order which was to increase cooperation between the nations. On social grounds, the emergence of English language as a lingua franca is largely a corollary of the New World Order. Although widely criticised to have caused languages deaths, the very transformation has brought an aspect of cooperation among the contemporary nations by providing a same medium of communication thereby enhancing better understanding (Bandura 6). International BodiesAs the interdependence among nations increased and the international bodies were given higher levels of authority, the New World Order triggered a transformation in the role of state in terms of sovereignty. The states in post cold war era experienced debilitating sovereignty as it is supplanted by the interna tional authority of the bodies like United Nations. In terms of cooperation, this shift provided better chances of cooperation by providing a rule of law and peace keeping environment for all the nations.Implementing a just supreme authority like UN above all the nations was aimed to motivate the nations in thinking globally rather than locally. The increasing role of United Nations in the New World Order was also because in the preceding times of cold war, the authority of UN remained nearly impossible because of the conflicting super powers of US and USSR. Empowering such international bodies by New World Order was aimed to protect the interests of both the strong and weak nations alike in order to maintain justice for peace and cooperation.The very fact was accentuated by Former UN Secretary-General Sir Brian Urquhart who said, â€Å"It is no longer acceptable that international action is taken only when a situation threatens the interests of the most powerful nations. † ( Holmes). Such International bodies are of varied types. One such example in economic world is that of World Trade Organization. World trade organization as a key instrument of New World Order has been using uniform trade policies for all the nations participating in the international economic trade. The developing countries are rising as a result of free trade.For the very reason the share of developing countries in global trade market increased. Consequently, on economic grounds the stronger states like US are as much dependent on the relatively weaker nations as they are on the former. Collective Security To ensure collective security, the New World Order proposed a rule of law. It also led to the UN resolution that prohibited invasions as a way of practicing aggression against other nations. In order to make possible this collective security and maintain absence of invasions, US used force against Iraq to withdraw its forces from Kuwait.The very concept of collective security led to the UN forces to aid the weaker nations during the times of war. Although providing a great scope of amelioration, the New World Order also implies certain threats arising due to the increased collaboration and globalization. Such threats include the transcendence of national boundaries, increased nuclear proliferation and the intermingled and inseparable nature of problems facing the world etc (Hauss 5). Globalization As perceived by Waters, â€Å"If globalisation in its most complete sense takes effect then the nation-state will be its chief victim (Shaneland). †With the positive picture of new world order to have catalyzed the process of globalization, authors like John Mc Murtry also throw light on the hidden threats of such apparently favourable changes. The author goes on to consider new world order a global coup d’etat which encourages oligopolistic trade in the name of international free market (Gordana 23). According to the paper â€Å"Is there a future f or the nation-state in an era of globalisation? If so, what future? † provided by Shaneland, there are three basic challenges that the nations are to face as a result of global development shaped by rapid globalization.These include (a) a reduced ability of the state to exert influence on its economy in the times when economic transactions are increasingly taking place on a global level which is considerably due to the trend of free trade; (b) an augmentation of trans-national bodies. These bodies are political (for instance the UN), economic (like NAFTA), a combination of the two (like the EU) and even the Non Governmental Organizations and (c) the establishment of global ruling organizations.Often termed as the super-national and sub-national centres of power, they include bodies like United Nations. The same author believes that in such a scenario the role of state has shifted from being the ‘primary unit of international relations to being a provider of public goods and infrastructure to global businesses’. International Bodies Many analysts propose the existence of a global authorities leads to the process of ruling the nations by meddling in the state affairs. The instruments of such a global authority are considered to be the present world’s organizations.This means that at one hand the states are losing their role within their territories and at the other hand they are not having a considerable role in the global community (Shaneland). Nuclear Proliferation Increased cooperation and ties between nations have resulted in increased nuclear proliferation. Previously held by only a single state, many of the contemporary states are now armed with nuclear weapons which pose a constant threat to the world peace and security. A war raged in such a scenario would lead to massive destruction. New World Order – A Critique:Many aspects of the New World Order are criticized for their contrary hidden implications. Joseph Nye argues t hat the interdependence suggested by New World Order is multilevel in nature. By the term ‘multilevel interdependence’, Nye suggests the idea of multiple layers in terms of distribution of power where one layer may have bipolar structure while the other sustains a unipolar structure. The most crucial of this layer is that of military power which is clearly unipolar in favour of the US. The second is the economic layer which although tripolar still has US as a major sharer.In fact it is only the third and last layer of interdependence that shows lack of concentrated power in favour of any strong country like US (Kessler 54). According to Marguerite K. Rivage-Seul and D. Michael Rivage-Seul, the New World Order is in itself a threat to the poor states and thus a strategy used by the stronger nations like US. This might result in a third world war against the weaker nations (1). Such an assumption is based on the increasing vulnerability of weaker nations as a result of in ternational authority.For instance, to survive in the global economic competition, the weaker nations require larger investments than they can afford. Loans from organizations like International Monitory Fund increase the vulnerability of such nations. Such a threat is not faced by the stronger nations. Conclusion Every phenomenon has its differential dimensions. So is the case with the new world order. However, the importance of it in terms of increasing interdependence and cooperation cannot be denied.As an alternate course of action, if the New World Order is to be replaced, the success of the system would require benignity which in turn demands an extra ordinary amount of change on the part of the human (Hauss 4). To dwell in such an idea of change would rather be utopianism than rationalism. In short, the merits of New World Order greatly supersede its demerits thereby making it the most viable international system for the cooperation and peace creation among the nations in the contemporary world. Works Cited Bandura, Abdul Karim. â€Å"Accelerated Language Deaths in the DevelopingWorld: A Consequence of the New World Order†. Oct. 1997. Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC). Capella University Library, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 11 Apr. 2009 Bertucci, Guido, and Adriana Alberti. Globalization and the Role of the State: Challenges and Perspectives. United Nations. 11 Apr. 2009, Hauss, Charles. Beyond Confrontation : Transforming the New World Order.Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996. Holmes, : Kim R. â€Å"New World Disorder: A Critique of the United Nations. † Journal of International Affairs 46. 2 (1993): 323-340 Is there a future for the nation-state in an era of globalisation? If so, what future? Shane Martin Coughlan. 11 Apr. 2009 Kessler, Bart R. Bush’s New World Order: The Meaning Behind the Words. Mar. 1997. Air Command and Staff College, USAF Air University, Montgomery, Alabama. 11 Apr. 2009